{"id":2067,"date":"2022-05-05T14:14:05","date_gmt":"2022-05-05T14:14:05","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.ampac1.com\/blog\/developing-a-framework-for-classifying-water-lead-levels-at-private-drinking-water-systems-a-bayesian-belief-network-approach\/"},"modified":"2026-04-13T16:13:57","modified_gmt":"2026-04-13T16:13:57","slug":"developing-a-framework-for-classifying-water-lead-levels-at-private-drinking-water-systems-a-bayesian-belief-network-approach","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.ampac1.com\/blog\/developing-a-framework-for-classifying-water-lead-levels-at-private-drinking-water-systems-a-bayesian-belief-network-approach\/","title":{"rendered":"Developing a framework for classifying water lead levels at private drinking water systems: A Bayesian Belief Network approach"},"content":{"rendered":"
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Mohammad Ali Khaksar Fasaee\u00a0<\/span>1<\/a><\/sup>,\u00a0<\/span><\/span>Emily Berglund\u00a0<\/span>2<\/a><\/sup>,\u00a0<\/span><\/span>Kelsey J Pieper\u00a0<\/span>3<\/a><\/sup>,\u00a0<\/span><\/span>Erin Ling\u00a0<\/span>4<\/a><\/sup>,\u00a0<\/span><\/span>Brian Benham\u00a0<\/span>5<\/a><\/sup>,\u00a0<\/span><\/span>Marc Edwards\u00a0<\/span>6<\/a><\/sup><\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n
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  • PMID:\u00a0<\/span>33271412<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n
  • DOI:\u00a0<\/span>10.1016\/j.watres.2020.116641<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/header>\n
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    Abstract<\/h2>\n
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    The presence of lead in drinking water creates a public health crisis, as lead causes neurological damage at low levels of exposure. The objective of this research is to explore modeling approaches to predict the risk of lead at private drinking water systems. This research uses Bayesian Network approaches to explore interactions among household characteristics, geological parameters, observations of tap water, and laboratory tests of water quality parameters. A knowledge discovery framework is developed by integrating methods for data discretization, feature selection, and Bayes classifiers. Forward selection and backward selection are explored for feature selection. Discretization approaches, including domain-knowledge, statistical, and information-based approaches, are tested to discretize continuous features. Bayes classifiers that are tested include General Bayesian Network, Naive Bayes, and Tree-Augmented Naive Bayes, which are applied to identify Directed Acyclic Graphs (DAGs). Bayesian inference is used to fit conditional probability tables for each DAG. The Bayesian framework is applied to fit models for a dataset collected by the Virginia Household Water Quality Program (VAHWQP), which collected water samples and conducted household surveys at 2,146 households that use private water systems, including wells and springs, in Virginia during 2012 and 2013. Relationships among laboratory-tested water quality parameters, observations of tap water, and household characteristics, including plumbing type, source water, household location, and on-site water treatment are explored to develop features for predicting water lead levels. Results demonstrate that Naive Bayes classifiers perform best based on recall and precision, when compared with other classifiers. Copper is the most significant predictor of lead, and other important predictors include county, pH, and on-site water treatment. Feature selection methods have a marginal effect on performance, and discretization methods can greatly affect model performance when paired with classifiers. Owners of private wells remain disadvantaged and may be at an elevated level of risk, because utilities and governing agencies are not responsible for ensuring that lead levels meet the Lead and Copper Rule for private wells. Insight gained from models can be used to identify water quality parameters, plumbing characteristics, and household variables that increase the likelihood of high water lead levels to inform decisions about lead testing and treatment.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

    Keywords:\u00a0<\/strong>Bayesian Belief Network; Contamination Classification; Lead in Drinking Water; Water Quality.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

    Copyright \u00a9 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.<\/p>\n

    The post Developing a framework for classifying water lead levels at private drinking water systems: A Bayesian Belief Network approach appeared first on Facts About Water.<\/p>\n

    Source: Water Feed<\/p>\n

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    Frequently Asked Questions<\/h2>\n
    \n

    How quickly can an emergency water purification unit be deployed?<\/h3>\n
    \n

    AMPAC USA's EPRO and mobile RO units can be operational within 30\u201360 minutes of arrival on-site. Trailer-mounted and skid-mounted systems are pre-plumbed and pre-wired, requiring only connection to a power source and water source. Units treat river water, lake water, or brackish groundwater.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

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    What flow rates are available for emergency water treatment?<\/h3>\n
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    AMPAC USA's emergency systems range from 1,500 GPD portable units to 50,000+ GPD trailer-mounted systems. Military-specification units are available for forward operating base deployment, producing potable water meeting EPA and WHO drinking water standards from virtually any source.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

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    Are emergency RO systems suitable for disaster relief operations?<\/h3>\n
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    Yes. AMPAC USA's emergency systems are used by FEMA, the U.S. military, and international NGOs for disaster relief. They treat flood water, contaminated groundwater, and brackish sources, removing bacteria, viruses, and chemical contaminants to produce safe drinking water on-site.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

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    What power sources can emergency water purification systems use?<\/h3>\n
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    AMPAC USA's emergency systems can run on generator power (120\/240V or 480V 3-phase), solar panels with battery backup, or vehicle power take-off (PTO). Low-power models consume as little as 0.5 kW, making them viable for off-grid deployment.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

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    How durable are military-grade water purification systems?<\/h3>\n
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    AMPAC USA's military systems are built to MIL-SPEC standards with stainless steel frames, powder-coated components, and UV-resistant materials. They are designed to operate in temperatures from -20\u00b0F to 120\u00b0F and are vibration-tested for transport in military vehicles.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

    <\/p>\n

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    Conclusion<\/h2>\n

    This post highlighted how emergency and military-grade water purification systems provide safe drinking water rapidly in the most challenging field conditions. For organizations requiring deployable water treatment capability, AMPAC USA engineers portable and trailer-mounted systems built to perform wherever they are needed. Contact our team at info@ampac1.com or (909) 548-4900 to discuss your emergency water treatment requirements.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

    Mohammad Ali Khaksar Fasaee\u00a01,\u00a0Emily Berglund\u00a02,\u00a0Kelsey J Pieper\u00a03,\u00a0Erin Ling\u00a04,\u00a0Brian Benham\u00a05,\u00a0Marc Edwards\u00a06 PMID:\u00a033271412 DOI:\u00a010.1016\/j.watre…<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":87919,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"site-sidebar-layout":"default","site-content-layout":"","ast-site-content-layout":"default","site-content-style":"default","site-sidebar-style":"default","ast-global-header-display":"","ast-banner-title-visibility":"","ast-main-header-display":"","ast-hfb-above-header-display":"","ast-hfb-below-header-display":"","ast-hfb-mobile-header-display":"","site-post-title":"","ast-breadcrumbs-content":"","ast-featured-img":"","footer-sml-layout":"","ast-disable-related-posts":"","theme-transparent-header-meta":"","adv-header-id-meta":"","stick-header-meta":"","header-above-stick-meta":"","header-main-stick-meta":"","header-below-stick-meta":"","astra-migrate-meta-layouts":"default","ast-page-background-enabled":"default","ast-page-background-meta":{"desktop":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"tablet":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"mobile":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""}},"ast-content-background-meta":{"desktop":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-4)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"tablet":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-4)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"mobile":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-4)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""}},"footnotes":""},"categories":[24],"tags":[22],"class_list":["post-2067","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-water-filter","tag-ro"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.ampac1.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2067","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.ampac1.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.ampac1.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.ampac1.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.ampac1.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=2067"}],"version-history":[{"count":4,"href":"https:\/\/www.ampac1.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2067\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":88392,"href":"https:\/\/www.ampac1.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2067\/revisions\/88392"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.ampac1.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/87919"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.ampac1.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=2067"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.ampac1.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=2067"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.ampac1.com\/blog\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=2067"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}